The mysterious withdrawal of the Mongol army from Europe in 1242.
After conquering Eastern Europe and occupying Hungary for a year, Batu and his forces suddenly halted their advance and returned to the Eurasian steppes.
Several theories attempt to explain this move, including the "political theory" attributing it to Ögedei Khan's death, the "geographical or ecological theory" suggesting environmental difficulties, the "limited goals theory," and the "military weakness theory."
While each theory presents some evidence, they contradict one another on key points.The "ecological theory" suggests that Europe could not support the pasture requirements of the Mongol horses, but later research suggests that Hungary's pastures could have sustained more animals than initially estimated.
Moreover, evidence of a severe famine in Hungary during the invasion does not appear in Mongol sources, and the Mongols repeatedly demanded submission from European powers after their departure.
The "military weakness theory" is also dismissed as the Mongols won major clashes and sacked important cities. However, the Mongols experienced losses in battles against the Hungarians and Poles and faced difficulty conquering strategically situated stone castles. Batu Khan may have concluded that continuing the advance would overextend his forces.
Additionally, there are rumors that Mongol shamans forbade a return to Hungary due to bad omens. The reasons behind the Mongol departure from Europe remain unclear, and ongoing debates aim to shed light on this intriguing historical mystery.
The Norman Conquest was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England by an army of Normans, French, Flemish, and Bretons, led by William, Duke of Normandy, who became William I of England.
The conquest resulted in profound political, administrative, and social changes in the British Isles.
Some of the main events of the Norman Conquest were:
The death of King Edward the Confessor in January 1066 and the succession of Harold Godwinson, Earl of Wessex, who faced rival claims from William of Normandy, Harald Hardrada of Norway, and Tostig Godwinson, Harold’s brother.
The invasion of Harald Hardrada and Tostig in northern England in September 1066 and their defeat by Harold at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September.
The landing of William and his army at Pevensey in southern England on 28 September and their victory over Harold at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October, where Harold was killed.
The resistance of the English nobility and the rebellions in various regions, especially in the north, which William suppressed with harsh measures, such as the Harrying of the North in 1069-1070.
The coronation of William as King of England on 25 December 1066 at Westminster Abbey and his establishment of a new feudal system, a new Norman-French elite, and a new administrative and legal framework.
The completion of the Domesday Book in 1086, a comprehensive survey of the land and property of England, which reflected the changes brought by the conquest.
Norman English.
Norman English is a term that refers to the varieties of English spoken in England after the Norman Conquest of 1066. Norman English was influenced by the Anglo-Norman language, which was a dialect of Old Norman that was used by the ruling class of Normans, French, Flemings, and Bretons. ¹²
Some of the features of Norman English were:
- The introduction of many words of French origin, especially in the domains of law, government, religion, art, and literature. For example, words like *parliament*, *jury*, *justice*, *royal*, *poetry*, and *romance* are all derived from French. ³
- The loss of some inflections and grammatical gender in nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. For example, the Old English words *se* (masculine), *seo* (feminine), and *þæt* (neuter) for 'the' were replaced by the French-derived *the*.
- The simplification of some consonant clusters and the reduction of some vowels in unstressed syllables. For example, the Old English word *hlaford* ('lord') became *laverd* in Norman English.
- The adoption of some French spelling conventions, such as the use of *qu* for *cw*, *ch* for *c*, and *sh* for *sc*. For example, the Old English words *cwen* ('queen'), *cyning* ('king'), and *scip* ('ship') became *quene*, *ching*, and *ship* in Norman English.
Norman English was gradually replaced by Middle English, which was influenced by other dialects of English, such as those spoken in the north and west of England, as well as by the standardization efforts of writers like Geoffrey Chaucer and John Wycliffe.
The city was sacked by the Visigothic king Alaric during the Gothic War of 395-410 between the Visigoths and the Western Roman Empire ⁴.
Alaric and his army entered Rome on August 24, 410 AD, and sacked the city for three days ². This event is considered a major turning point in the fall of the Western Roman Empire ².
The sack of Rome in 410 AD was a cataclysmic event that shocked contemporaries, friends, and foes of the Empire alike.
Sack of Rome 410
After several generations of Roman superiority and arrogance, the Visigothic "barbarian" mercenaries reminded their erstwhile masters of where the real military power lay ⁸.
The Germanic tribes had undergone massive technological, social, and economic changes after four centuries of contact with the Roman Empire.
From the first to fourth centuries, their populations, economic production, and tribal confederations grew, and their ability to conduct warfare increased to the point of challenging Rome ²⁸.
The Goths, one of the Germanic tribes, had invaded the Roman Empire on and off since 238 AD ². But in the late 4th century, the Huns began to invade the lands of the Germanic tribes and pushed many of them into the Roman Empire with greater fervor ²⁸.
In 376 AD, the Huns forced many Therving Goths led by Fritigern and Alavivus to seek refuge in the Eastern Roman Empire. Soon after, starvation, high taxes, hatred from the Roman population, and governmental corruption turned the Goths against the empire.
The Goths rebelled and began looting and pillaging throughout the eastern Balkans. A Roman army led by Eastern Roman Emperor Valens marched to put them down. At the Battle of Adrianople in 378 AD, Fritigern decisively defeated Emperor Valens who was killed in battle ²⁸.
Peace was eventually established in 382 AD when new Eastern Emperor Theodosius I signed a treaty with Thervings who would become known as Visigoths.
The treaty made Visigoths subjects of the empire as foederati. They were allotted northern part of dioceses of Dacia and Thrace, and while land remained under Roman sovereignty and Visigoths were expected to provide military service, they were considered autonomous ²⁸.
Alaric was declared king by a group of Visigoths around 391 AD. He led his people on a series of campaigns against Rome before finally sacking it in 410 AD ⁴.
(8) Who were the Vandals, the 'barbarians' who sacked Rome?. https://www.livescience.com/who-were-the-vandals.
(9) The Sack of Rome: Its Significance and Who Is to Blame - Academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/34933425/The_Sack_of_Rome_Its_Significance_and_Who_Is_to_Blame.
(10) Six Infamous Sacks of Eternal City — Rome - Medium. https://medium.com/lessons-from-history/6-legendary-sacks-of-rome-751d3ca892e3.
(11) Aug 27, 410 CE: Sack of Rome - National Geographic Society. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/aug27/sack-rome/.
(12) Sack of Rome (546) - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.
(13) Sack of Rome (546) - Infogalactic: the planetary knowledge core. https://infogalactic.com/info/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.
(14) About: Sack of Rome (546) - DBpedia Association. https://dbpedia.org/page/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.
(15) Sack of Rome (546) | Military Wiki | Fandom. https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.
(16) Sack of Rome (546) - Wikiwand. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.
Alaric-king of the Visigoths. 1920s artistic depiction of Alaric parading through Athens after conquering the city in 395
Who was Alaric
Alaric I was the first king of the Visigoths, who reigned from 395 to 410 AD ¹. He was born in Balti, an aristocratic dynasty, and was a direct descendant of the great chieftain Rothestes ¹⁹.
Alaric served for a time as commander of Gothic troops in the Roman army, but shortly after the death of the emperor, he became chief of the Tervingi and Greuthungi tribes (later known as the Visigoth and Ostrogoth, respectively) ⁵.
Alaric relaxing in Athens.
He led his people on a series of campaigns against Rome before finally sacking it in 410 AD ⁴. The sack of Rome in 410 AD was a cataclysmic event that shocked contemporaries, friends, and foes of the Empire alike.
After several generations of Roman superiority and arrogance, the Visigothic "barbarian" mercenaries reminded their erstwhile masters of where the real military power lay ⁸.
(1) Alaric I - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaric_I.
(2) Alaric I Biography - Facts, Childhood, Family Life & Achievements. https://www.thefamouspeople.com/profiles/alaric-i-36796.php.
(9) Sack of Rome (546) - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.
(10) About: Sack of Rome (546) - DBpedia Association. https://dbpedia.org/page/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.
(11) Sack of Rome (546) | Military Wiki | Fandom. https://military-history.fandom.com/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.
(12) Sack of Rome (546) - Wikiwand. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Sack_of_Rome_%28546%29.
(13) Sack of Rome | Summary | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Sack-of-Rome-410.
(14) The Sack of Rome: Its Significance and Who Is to Blame - Academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/34933425/The_Sack_of_Rome_Its_Significance_and_Who_Is_to_Blame.
(15) Six Infamous Sacks of Eternal City — Rome - Medium. https://medium.com/lessons-from-history/6-legendary-sacks-of-rome-751d3ca892e3.
(16) Aug 27, 410 CE: Sack of Rome - National Geographic Society. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/thisday/aug27/sack-rome/.
(17) Sack of Rome | Summary | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Sack-of-Rome-1527.
(18) Sack of Rome (410) - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%28410%29.
(19) Sack of Rome (1527) - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sack_of_Rome_%281527%29.
The Visigothic language is an extinct East Germanic language that was spoken by the Visigoths, a Germanic people who migrated into the Roman Empire in the 4th and 5th centuries AD ¹.
The language is known primarily from the remains of the translation of the Bible into Gothic that was made by Ulfilas in the 4th century AD ¹.
The Visigothic language is a variation of Gothic language, which was spoken along the western shore of the Black Sea about the middle of the 4th century AD ¹.
The Visigoths spoke an eastern Germanic language that was distinct by the 4th century. Eventually, the Gothic language died as a result of contact with other European people during the Middle Ages ³.
(1) Visigothic | language | Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Visigothic.
The Heruli were an ancient Germanic people who originated from Scandinavia and migrated to various regions of Europe. They were known for their raids and invasions of the Roman Empire, especially in the Balkans and the Aegean Sea.
They also fought as mercenaries for different rulers and factions. Here is a brief overview of their language, warfare and relation with Rome:
- Language: The Heruli spoke a Germanic language, but it is not clear which branch of the Germanic family it belonged to. Some of their personal names are similar to Gothic names, suggesting an East Germanic affiliation. ¹
The Heruli homeland was probably in Southern Sweden and the Danish isles.
However, some scholars have proposed that they spoke a North Germanic language, based on their possible Scandinavian origin and some linguistic evidence.
Unfortunately, there are no surviving texts or inscriptions in the Heruli language, so it is difficult to reconstruct it with certainty.
- Warfare: The Heruli were skilled warriors who excelled in both land and sea combat. They used swords, spears, axes, bows and arrows, and shields.
They also wore helmets, chain mail, and leather armor. They were known for their speed, agility, and ferocity in battle. They often attacked by surprise, plundering towns and villages, taking captives and slaves, and demanding tribute.
They also served as mercenaries for various rulers, such as the Huns, the Goths, the Byzantines, and the Lombards. They participated in many wars and conflicts in Europe and Asia Minor, such as the Gothic War (376-382), the Hunnic invasions (441-453), the Fall of Rome (476), the Gothic War (535-554), and the Lombard invasion of Italy (568-569).
- Relation with Rome: The Heruli had a complex and changing relation with Rome. At times they were enemies who raided and invaded Roman provinces, causing devastation and destruction.
At other times they were allies or subjects who fought for or with Rome against other enemies. They also settled in some Roman territories, such as the Danube region, where they established their own kingdom in the 5th century.
They also converted to Christianity, adopting either the Arian or the Orthodox faith. However, their kingdom was destroyed by the Lombards in the early 6th century, and some of them fled to the Byzantine Empire, where they continued to serve as soldiers or colonists.
The last mention of the Heruli in history is in the 7th century, when they were assimilated into other peoples or disappeared from the historical record.
The Heruli in Italy.
The Heruli were a Germanic people who originated from Scandinavia and participated in various raids and migrations in the Roman Empire.
They were involved in several conquests of Italy by different barbarian leaders, such as Odoacer, Theoderic the Great, and Narses. They also had their own kingdom on the Middle Danube for a short time, but it was destroyed by the Lombards. Here is a brief overview of their history in Italy:
- In 476 AD, the Heruli leader Odoacer deposed the last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustulus, and became the ruler of Italy. He is considered to be the first barbarian king of Italy and his reign marks the end of the Western Roman Empire.
He ruled as a client of the Eastern Roman Empire, but also invaded some of its provinces. He was eventually defeated and killed by Theodoric the Great, the king of the Ostrogoths, in 493 AD.
Odoacer-king of the Sciri and the Heruli.
- In 489 AD, Theodoric the Great invaded Italy with his Ostrogothic army, which included some Heruli as allies.
He fought against Odoacer for five years until he captured Ravenna, the capital of Italy, and killed Odoacer. He then established the Ostrogothic Kingdom of Italy, which lasted until 553 AD. He was regarded as a wise and tolerant ruler who preserved Roman culture and law.
- In 535 AD, the Eastern Roman Emperor Justinian I launched a campaign to reconquer Italy from the Ostrogoths. He sent his general Belisarius, who was accompanied by some Heruli mercenaries, to invade Italy.
Belisarius captured several cities, including Rome and Ravenna, but faced resistance from the Ostrogoths and their allies. The war lasted for 18 years and devastated Italy.
It ended with the victory of another Eastern Roman general, Narses, who defeated the last Ostrogothic king, Teia, in 552 AD. Narses then became the governor of Italy and ruled until 568 AD. He also faced invasions from other Germanic tribes, such as the Franks and the Lombards.
The Heruli disappeared from history around this time, as they were either assimilated into other groups or migrated to other regions. Some scholars have suggested that they may have left some traces in place names or folklore in northern Italy or Scandinavia.
The Marcomanni were a Germanic tribe that lived in Central Europe during the Roman era. Their name is believed to mean "border men" or "frontier men" in the Germanic language. They were part of the larger Suebi tribal confederation.
The Marcomanni had their own Germanic language, which is classified as East Germanic. Unfortunately, very little is known about their specific language as it did not survive in written form.
The Marcomanni had several conflicts with the Roman Empire, particularly during the 2nd century AD. The most significant wars were:
1. Marcomannic Wars (166-180 AD): This was a series of wars fought between the Marcomanni and their allies (such as the Quadi) against the Roman Empire under the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius. The Marcomanni, along with other Germanic tribes, launched invasions into Roman territories along the Danube frontier. The war lasted for several years and resulted in heavy casualties on both sides. Eventually, the Romans were able to repel the invaders and secure their borders.
2. War of 213-217 AD: This conflict occurred during the reign of Emperor Caracalla. The Marcomanni, along with other Germanic tribes, took advantage of the Roman Empire's internal instability and launched another invasion. The war lasted for several years, and although the Romans initially suffered defeats, they eventually managed to regain control and push the invaders back.
These wars marked the Marcomanni as formidable opponents to the Roman Empire and highlighted the constant struggle between the Romans and the Germanic tribes along the Danube frontier.
The Marcomanni language.
Unfortunately, very little has survived of the Marcomanni language. As an East Germanic language, it is not well-documented, and there are no known texts or inscriptions in Marcomanni. The lack of written records makes it challenging to reconstruct or understand the specifics of their language.
However, some linguistic information can be inferred from the names of Marcomanni individuals that have been recorded in Roman sources. These names suggest that the Marcomanni language was likely closely related to other East Germanic languages, such as Gothic.
Additionally, some linguistic features of the Marcomanni language can be inferred from the later Gothic language, which is the most well-documented East Germanic language. By comparing Gothic with other Germanic languages, linguists have been able to make some educated guesses about the linguistic characteristics of the Marcomanni language.
Overall, while we have limited knowledge about the Marcomanni language, it is believed to have been an East Germanic language closely related to Gothic.
Marcomanni warfare.
Unfortunately, very little has survived of the Marcomanni language. As an East Germanic language, it is not well-documented, and there are no known texts or inscriptions in Marcomanni. The lack of written records makes it challenging to reconstruct or understand the specifics of their language.
However, some linguistic information can be inferred from the names of Marcomanni individuals that have been recorded in Roman sources. These names suggest that the Marcomanni language was likely closely related to other East Germanic languages, such as Gothic.
Additionally, some linguistic features of the Marcomanni language can be inferred from the later Gothic language, which is the most well-documented East Germanic language. By comparing Gothic with other Germanic languages, linguists have been able to make some educated guesses about the linguistic characteristics of the Marcomanni language.
Overall, while we have limited knowledge about the Marcomanni language, it is believed to have been an East Germanic language closely related to Gothic.
The Minoan civilization was a Bronze Age culture that flourished on the island of Crete from approximately 3100 BC to 1100 BC ¹.
Although the Minoans were not Greek, they have had an instrumental role in shaping the Greek civilization and hence their mention while discussing ancient Greece is a must ³.
The Minoan civilization developed from the local Neolithic culture around 3100 BC, with complex urban settlements beginning around 2000 BC ¹.
The Minoans constructed enormous buildings which their initial excavators labeled palaces. Subsequent research has shown that they served a variety of religious and economic purposes rather than being royal residences, though their exact role in Minoan society is a matter of continuing debate ¹.
The ruins of the palaces at Knossos and Phaistos are popular tourist attractions ¹. Minoan art included elaborately decorated pottery, seals, figurines, and colorful frescoes.
They are believed to have invented true fresco, a technique which results in the pigment becoming part of the wall. Typical subjects include nature and ritual.
Minoan art is often described as having a fantastical or ecstatic quality, with figures rendered in a manner suggesting motion ¹.
Little is known about the structure of Minoan society. Social stratification is evidenced by burials and domestic architecture, but Minoan art contains no unambiguous depiction of a monarch, and Egyptian records suggest they may have had some other form of governance.
Likewise, while some sites seem to have been politically and economically linked, it is not clear whether there was ever a unified Minoan state or states ¹.
(4) Minoan civilization - New World Encyclopedia. https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Minoan_civilization.
The Minoan language
The Minoan language is the language (or languages) of the ancient Minoan civilization of Crete, which was written in the Cretan hieroglyphs and later in the Linear A syllabary ¹.
Unfortunately, the Minoan language is unknown and unclassified as the Cretan hieroglyphs are undeciphered and Linear A only partly deciphered ¹.
It is impossible to be certain that the two scripts record the same language ¹. The Eteocretan language, attested in a few alphabetic inscriptions from Crete 1,000 years later, is possibly a descendant of Minoan, but is also unclassified ¹.
The phonetic system of the Minoan language can be reconstructed to have consonant phonemes such as bilabial, dental, alveolar, palatal, velar, uvular, glottal nasals, stops, fricatives, trills and approximants ¹.
Brent Davis, a linguist and archaeologist at the University of Melbourne has proposed that the basic word order of the language written in Linear A may be verb-subject-object (VSO), based on the properties of a common formulaic sequence found in Linear A ¹.
(1) Minoan language - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_language.
(2) Minoan language - Wikiwand. https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Minoan_language.
(3) Linear A - Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_A.
Learning a foreign language can be a challenging but rewarding experience. Here are some tips to help you learn a foreign language quickly:
Speak the language whenever you can: Don’t be afraid to make mistakes. Speaking the language with native speakers will help you improve your pronunciation and grammar.
Read children’s books and comic books in the foreign language: This is a fun way to learn new vocabulary and grammar structures.
Consume foreign language media: Watch TV shows, movies, and listen to music in the foreign language. This will help you improve your listening comprehension and vocabulary.
Immerse yourself in the local culture: Travel to a country where the language is spoken or attend cultural events in your area.
Make use of free foreign language podcasts and apps: There are many free resources available online that can help you learn a new language quickly.
Get feedback from native speakers: Don’t practice in isolation. Get feedback from native speakers to improve your pronunciation and grammar.
Start with short, simple dialogues: Focus on basic conversations that you might have in everyday life.
Focus on comprehensible input: Try to understand the meaning of what you’re reading or hearing, rather than focusing on individual words.
Study pronunciation very early on: Good pronunciation is essential for effective communication.
Read wisely, not widely: Focus on reading materials that are interesting and relevant to you.
Start speaking early: Don’t wait until you feel confident to start speaking the language.
Learn one language at a time: Trying to learn multiple languages at once can be overwhelming.
Focus on real concentrated study… not cheap hacks: There are no shortcuts to learning a new language quickly, but with dedication and hard work, it is possible 1.
I hope these tips help you achieve your goal of learning a new language quickly!
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